The 2007 Kenyan general election marked a defining moment in the country’s political history, one that not only shaped Kenya’s future but also brought to light the deep ethnic and political divides that continue to influence the nation’s governance. Held on December 27, 2007, the elections were contested fiercely, with Mwai Kibaki, Raila Odinga, and Kalonzo Musyoka emerging as the top presidential contenders. The election results, however, were marred by allegations of electoral fraud, leading to widespread violence and unrest across the country.
At the center of the conflict were the presidential results. Mwai Kibaki, the incumbent, was declared the winner by the Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK), despite Raila Odinga’s claims of victory. This discrepancy sparked violent protests, ethnic clashes, and mass displacement. The subsequent political turmoil led to over a thousand deaths and left the country grappling with its most intense period of post-election violence.
The aftermath of the election saw the establishment of the National Accord and Reconciliation Act, which paved the way for the formation of a coalition government, with Raila Odinga appointed as Prime Minister. This article delves into the events surrounding the 2007 election, its controversial results, the resulting violence, and the long-lasting effects on Kenya’s political landscape.
The Background to the 2007 Kenyan General Election
The 2007 elections were preceded by a highly charged political environment. Mwai Kibaki, who had initially promised a one-term presidency during his 2002 campaign, declared his intention to run for re-election in early 2007. His announcement came as part of a newly formed alliance known as the Party of National Unity (PNU), which brought together several political factions, including KANU, the Democratic Party, and others.
On the opposition side, Raila Odinga emerged as the leading candidate for the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), while Kalonzo Musyoka led the ODM-Kenya faction. Both Odinga and Musyoka were significant challengers to Kibaki, with Odinga particularly gaining support among the Luo, Kalenjin, and Luhya ethnic groups. Kibaki, on the other hand, retained strong support from the Kikuyu community, the dominant ethnic group in Kenya.
The electoral process leading up to the vote was fraught with tensions. Several issues, including the high cost of living and the government’s handling of the economy, took center stage in the campaign. Additionally, ethnic tensions played a significant role in shaping the political discourse, with each candidate trying to mobilize support based on ethnic lines. This laid the foundation for the explosive events that followed the announcement of the election results.
The Presidential Election Results
The election saw an impressive voter turnout of over 14 million registered voters, with a significant portion of the electorate aged between 18 and 40. The presidential election was highly competitive, with the results ultimately being split between Kibaki, Odinga, and Musyoka. Kibaki received 4,584,721 votes, which amounted to 46.42% of the vote, while Odinga secured 4,352,993 votes, or 44.07%. Musyoka trailed with 879,903 votes, which represented 8.91% of the vote.
Despite Odinga’s strong showing and widespread allegations of fraud, the Electoral Commission of Kenya declared Kibaki as the winner of the presidential election. The declaration, which came on December 30, 2007, was met with outrage from Odinga and his supporters, who accused the government of rigging the election results. The tension escalated quickly, with Odinga calling for a recount and declaring that he was the true winner of the election.
The Post-Election Violence
Almost immediately after Kibaki was declared the winner, violence erupted across Kenya. The violence was largely ethnic in nature, with tensions between the Kikuyu community, which supported Kibaki, and the Luo, Kalenjin, and other ethnic groups, which supported Odinga, reaching boiling point. Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa, and parts of the Rift Valley became hotspots for violent protests, ethnic clashes, and looting. The government initially attempted to suppress the violence by deploying security forces, but the situation quickly spiraled out of control.
The violence resulted in over 1,000 deaths and displaced hundreds of thousands of people from their homes. Notably, the violence in the Rift Valley led to the destruction of properties, farms, and businesses, with many Kikuyus fleeing the region in fear for their lives. The government was criticized for its handling of the situation, and the international community, including organizations like the United Nations and African Union, called for calm and a peaceful resolution.
The media also played a significant role in escalating the violence. While the international press highlighted the widespread unrest, much of the domestic media coverage was seen as partisan, further inflaming tensions between opposing ethnic and political groups.
The Formation of a Coalition Government
In response to the widespread violence, and under intense international pressure, a peace agreement was brokered, known as the National Accord and Reconciliation Act. The agreement, signed in February 2008, called for the formation of a coalition government, with Kibaki remaining as President and Odinga being appointed as Prime Minister. This power-sharing arrangement was seen as the only viable solution to end the violence and restore stability to the country.
While the formation of the coalition government helped quell the violence, the political fallout from the election left deep scars. The public perception of the electoral process was severely damaged, with many Kenyans losing faith in the fairness of their electoral system. Ethnic divisions were exacerbated, and the political polarization continued to affect the country’s governance in the years that followed.
The Aftermath and Reforms
In the aftermath of the 2007 election crisis, Kenya began a process of political and constitutional reforms aimed at preventing a repeat of the violence. The Constitution of Kenya (2010) introduced significant changes to the political system, including the devolution of power to regional governments and reforms to the electoral system. These changes were designed to promote inclusivity, reduce ethnic tensions, and ensure that future elections would be more transparent.
The violence also led to calls for accountability and justice for the victims of the post-election violence. In 2010, the International Criminal Court (ICC) began investigations into the role of key political figures in the violence, though many critics argue that the process did not achieve full justice for the victims.
Conclusion
Early results published by the Kenyan media gave Raila Odinga a narrow lead of 1,691,679 votes against Kibaki’s 1,222,725 in 69 of the country’s 210 constituencies.[34] Odinga held a strong lead in vote counting on 28 December,[35] and the ODM declared victory on 29 December;[36] however, as more results were announced on the same day, the gap between the two candidates narrowed.[35][36] Early on 30 December, Odinga accused the government of fraud, urged Kibaki to concede defeat, and called for a recount.[37] The ECK declared Kibaki the winner later on 30 December, placing him ahead of Odinga by about 232,000 votes.[38][39] According to Odinga, at least 300,000 votes for Kibaki were falsely included in his total.[40] ECK chairman Samuel Kivuitu said that while irregularities had occurred, they were a matter for the courts, not the Electoral Commission.[41] Following the commission’s declaration of his victory, Kibaki was sworn in for his second term later on the same day,[39][42] saying that he had been told by his people that he had won, calling for the “verdict of the people” to be respected and for “healing and reconciliation” to begin.[39]
Kivuitu said that there were some problems with the count, noting that in one constituency voter turnout was reported as 115%,[43] although this was later clarified by Kivuitu appearing in an interview by Nation Television due to a double entry of one polling station in Maragua Constituency on the parliamentary tally and not the presidential tally. According to the European Union‘s head election observer, Alexander Graf Lambsdorff, the elections were “flawed”[35] and the ECK had failed to establish “the credibility of the tallying process to the satisfaction of all parties and candidates.”[44] The United Kingdom’s Foreign Secretary, David Miliband, said that he had “real concerns” about the elections. While the United States initially congratulated Kibaki and called for the results to be respected,[45] it also expressed concern,[46] and on 2 January 2008 a spokesman for the US State Department declined to confirm US recognition of Kibaki’s victory.[47] In a telex from then US Embassy in Nairobi to the State Department in Washington DC [released in July 2012], US Ambassador Michael Ranneberger set out five scenarios as to who really won the election. He wrote, ‘In all cases the margin of victory for either side is slim and ultimately unknowable’. The telex also noted that there was ‘evidence of rigging on both sides’.[48][49] Kivuitu said on 2 January that he had been pressured by PNU and ODM–K (Kibaki’s and Kalonzo Musyoka’s parties) into announcing the results without delay, declaring Kibaki the winner; claiming that he did not personally know who really won.[50]
Within minutes of the commission’s declaration of Kibaki’s victory, ethnically based rioting and violence, primarily directed against Kikuyus, broke out across Kenya,[35] and the government suspended live television coverage for some days.[35][45][51][52] Odinga alleged that “a clique of people around Kibaki” sought to rig the election, but said that democracy “is unstoppable like the flow of the Nile”. The ODM announced its intention to hold a ceremony on 31 December in which Odinga would be declared the “people’s president”, but police said that this could incite violence and that Odinga could be arrested if the ceremony occurred.[45] Odinga then delayed this, but called for a million-strong rally on 3 January 2008 and for his supporters to wear black armbands as a show of mourning.[53][54]
Odinga said that the ODM would not negotiate with Kibaki unless he resigned, because to do so would mean acknowledging Kibaki’s legitimacy; he also said that, unless stopped, the “ruling clique” could rig the next elections in five years as well, and that he was not afraid of being arrested, having been jailed many times in the past.[55] For his part, Kibaki emphasised the importance of peace, stability, and tolerance in his 2008 New Year’s message, speaking of the elections as a concluded event and warning that law-breakers would be punished.[56]
| Candidate | Party | Votes | % | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mwai Kibaki | Party of National Unity | 4,584,721 | 46.42 | |
| Raila Odinga | Orange Democratic Movement | 4,352,993 | 44.07 | |
| Kalonzo Musyoka | Orange Democratic Movement–Kenya | 879,903 | 8.91 | |
| Joseph Karani | Kenya Patriotic Trust Party | 21,171 | 0.21 | |
| Pius Muiru | Kenya Peoples’ Party | 9,667 | 0.10 | |
| Nazlin Omar | Workers Congress Party of Kenya | 8,624 | 0.09 | |
| Kenneth Matiba | Saba Saba Asili | 8,046 | 0.08 | |
| David Waweru Ng’ethe | Chama Cha Uma | 5,976 | 0.06 | |
| Nixon Kukubo | Republican Party of Kenya | 5,927 | 0.06 | |
| Total | 9,877,028 | 100.00 | ||
| Registered voters/turnout | 14,296,180 | – | ||
| Source: African Elections Database | ||||
National Assembly
Preliminary results showed that Vice-President Moody Awori and Wangari Maathai both lost their seats. Other notable politicians with the same fate included Mutahi Kagwe, Musikari Kombo, Simeon Nyachae, Nicholas Biwott, Chris Murungaru, Mukhisa Kituyi, Raphael Tuju, Kipruto Kirwa, Njenga Karume and Gideon Moi, the son of former president Daniel arap Moi.[57][58][59][60]
The elections were cancelled in Kamukunji and Kilgoris.[61]
| Party | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Orange Democratic Movement | 2,973,415 | 30.83 | 99 | New | |
| Party of National Unity | 2,014,413 | 20.89 | 43 | New | |
| Orange Democratic Movement–Kenya | 633,880 | 6.57 | 16 | New | |
| Kenya African National Union | 613,864 | 6.36 | 15 | −49 | |
| Safina | 366,629 | 3.80 | 5 | +3 | |
| National Rainbow Coalition | 328,945 | 3.41 | 3 | – | |
| Democratic Party | 237,205 | 2.46 | 2 | −37 | |
| FORD–People | 192,489 | 2.00 | 3 | −11 | |
| Kenya African Democratic Development Union | 190,051 | 1.97 | 1 | – | |
| Kenya National Democratic Alliance | 162,538 | 1.69 | 1 | +1 | |
| NARC–Kenya | 158,752 | 1.65 | 4 | New | |
| Sisi Kwa Sisi | 149,933 | 1.55 | 2 | 0 | |
| Chama Cha Uzalendo | 115,243 | 1.19 | 2 | – | |
| United Democratic Movement | 107,831 | 1.12 | 1 | +1 | |
| Mazingira Green Party of Kenya | 95,227 | 0.99 | 1 | +1 | |
| New Ford Kenya | 88,562 | 0.92 | 2 | New | |
| Party of Independent Candidates of Kenya | 85,348 | 0.88 | 2 | +2 | |
| FORD–Kenya | 75,145 | 0.78 | 1 | −20 | |
| FORD–Asili | 66,013 | 0.68 | 1 | −1 | |
| National Labour Party | 51,887 | 0.54 | 1 | – | |
| The Independent Party | 50,797 | 0.53 | 0 | – | |
| Social Democratic Party | 39,871 | 0.41 | 0 | 0 | |
| Kenya National Congress | 39,840 | 0.41 | 0 | 0 | |
| Party of Hope | 35,962 | 0.37 | 0 | – | |
| National Patriotic Party of Kenya | 33,289 | 0.35 | 0 | – | |
| Labour Party of Kenya | 33,008 | 0.34 | 0 | – | |
| Republican Alliance Party of Kenya | 31,331 | 0.32 | 0 | – | |
| KADU–Asili | 30,462 | 0.32 | 1 | – | |
| Agano Party | 30,085 | 0.31 | 0 | – | |
| New Sisi Kwa Sisi Kenya | 28,893 | 0.30 | 0 | – | |
| Chama Cha Mwananchi | 27,438 | 0.28 | 0 | – | |
| Forum for Republican Party | 26,333 | 0.27 | 0 | – | |
| United Democratic Party of Kenya | 23,870 | 0.25 | 0 | – | |
| Green African Party | 20,038 | 0.21 | 0 | – | |
| Dynamic Development Party | 19,972 | 0.21 | 0 | – | |
| United Democrats of Peace And Integrity in Kenya | 19,648 | 0.20 | 0 | – | |
| Community Development Party | 18,994 | 0.20 | 0 | – | |
| Farmers Party | 18,985 | 0.20 | 0 | – | |
| Federal Party of Kenya | 17,491 | 0.18 | 0 | – | |
| Peoples Democratic Party | 15,655 | 0.16 | 1 | +1 | |
| National Integrity Party | 15,443 | 0.16 | 0 | – | |
| Republican Liberty Party | 15,379 | 0.16 | 0 | – | |
| Shirikisho Party of Kenya | 15,228 | 0.16 | 0 | – | |
| New Democrats | 14,986 | 0.16 | 0 | – | |
| Peoples Party of Kenya | 14,892 | 0.15 | 1 | +1 | |
| Peoples’ Solidarity Union of Kenya | 14,315 | 0.15 | 0 | – | |
| New Revival Generation Party | 14,302 | 0.15 | 0 | – | |
| United People’s Congress | 12,750 | 0.13 | 0 | – | |
| Pambazuka Party of Kenya | 12,390 | 0.13 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Citizens Congress | 12,347 | 0.13 | 0 | – | |
| Growth and Development Party | 11,786 | 0.12 | 0 | – | |
| Social Party for Advancement and Reforms – Kenya | 11,764 | 0.12 | 0 | – | |
| National Democratic Alliance | 11,357 | 0.12 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Social Congress | 11,223 | 0.12 | 0 | 0 | |
| Liberal Democratic Movement | 10,886 | 0.11 | 0 | – | |
| Republican Party of Kenya | 10,494 | 0.11 | 0 | – | |
| Generation Alliance Party of Kenya | 9,808 | 0.10 | 0 | – | |
| Daraja Ya Wakenya Party | 9,719 | 0.10 | 0 | – | |
| National Alliance Party | 9,112 | 0.09 | 0 | – | |
| Saba Saba Asili | 8,301 | 0.09 | 0 | – | |
| Kifagio Party of Kenya | 8,106 | 0.08 | 0 | – | |
| Progressive Party of Kenya | 8,081 | 0.08 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya People’s Party | 8,067 | 0.08 | 0 | – | |
| Chama Cha Uma Party | 7,367 | 0.08 | 0 | – | |
| New Kanu Alliance Party of Kenya | 7,010 | 0.07 | 0 | – | |
| Mass Party of Kenya | 6,600 | 0.07 | 0 | – | |
| National Progressive Party | 6,106 | 0.06 | 0 | – | |
| Vipa Progressive Alliance | 5,652 | 0.06 | 0 | – | |
| Common Wealth Development Party of Kenya | 5,573 | 0.06 | 0 | – | |
| Workers Congress Party of Kenya | 5,386 | 0.06 | 0 | – | |
| New Aspiration Party | 5,172 | 0.05 | 0 | – | |
| Democratic Representative Party | 5,020 | 0.05 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Affiliated Democratic Unity | 4,531 | 0.05 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Nationalist Peoples Democratic Party | 4,099 | 0.04 | 0 | – | |
| Freedom Party of Kenya | 3,795 | 0.04 | 0 | – | |
| Movement for Democratic Advancement Party of Kenya | 2,496 | 0.03 | 0 | – | |
| Citizen Democratic Party of Kenya | 2,485 | 0.03 | 0 | – | |
| Democratic Labour Party of Kenya | 2,439 | 0.03 | 0 | – | |
| Communal Democracy Party of Kenya | 2,347 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| National Dynamic Development Party | 2,252 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| National Renewal People’s Party | 2,009 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Patriotic Trust Party | 1,878 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| The National Integration Party of Kenya | 1,799 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Union of National Alliance of Peace | 1,457 | 0.02 | 0 | – | |
| National Party of Kenya | 1,339 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Chama Cha Muafaka Na Mwangaza | 1,250 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Democracy Assistance Party | 1,220 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| National Liberation Party | 1,089 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| National Conservative Party of Kenya | 1,081 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Chama Cha Utu | 985 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Allied Democratic Party of Kenya | 976 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Alliance for the Restoration of Democracy in Kenya | 923 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya National Liberation Party | 898 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Moral Integrity Party | 885 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Party for Economic Change And Democracy | 879 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| The Nuru Party | 832 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Green Social Democratic Party of Kenya | 706 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Cultural Alliance | 699 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| National Star Party of Kenya | 691 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Social Welfare Alliance Party of Kenya | 620 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Wakulima Party of Kenya | 598 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Jubilee Peoples Party of Kenya | 547 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Muungano Party | 517 | 0.01 | 0 | – | |
| Pan Africa Assemblies | 475 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Reform Party of Kenya | 390 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Forum for Orange Democratic Change Party | 318 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Peoples Patriotic Party of Kenya | 301 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Democratic Community Party | 233 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Restoration Democrats of Kenya | 219 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Universal Democratic Party of Kenya | 204 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Political Caucus Party of Kenya | 203 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Peoples Convention Party | 181 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| The National Republican Party of Kenya | 172 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Kenya Republican Reformation Party | 76 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Movement for Democratic Advancement Party | 62 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Union of Democratic Party | 50 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| United Party of Democracy | 46 | 0.00 | 0 | – | |
| Vacant | 2 | – | |||
| Total | 9,645,206 | 100.00 | 210 | 0 | |
| Source: IDE | |||||
Aftermath
Main articles: 2007–08 Kenyan crisis and National Accord and Reconciliation Act 2008
Kibaki, of the Kikuyu ethnic group, was supported by Kikuyus, while Odinga, of the Luo ethnic group, was supported by the Luo and Kalenjins. Fifteen minutes after Kibaki was announced as the winner of the presidential elections, Luo began violent demonstrations in Nairobi. Within a day, nearly all businesses were closed and streets were empty. During January and February 2008, hundreds of thousands of people were displaced from their homes, and more than 1,000 people died from the post-election violence. Crime exploded in Kikuyu settlements in the Rift Valley, and intra-urban slums in Mombasa. Most Kikuyus in the Rift Valley fled their homes and settled anywhere they could find refuge. Some Kikuyu’s settled in a church at Kiambaa in Eldoret, where Kalenjin youth barricaded the door from outside and set the church on fire killing about 30 people.[62] Farms were looted and roads were blocked, leaving people unable to work, farmers and commuters alike. Many members of large ethnic groups attacked anyone who they felt didn’t belong; minorities and people that had come from other countries were common targets. Some people even fled to Uganda and other nearby countries to escape the social unrest. One sector greatly affected by the political unrest was tourism; flights and tours were cancelled, companies withdrew from Kenya, and many people lost their job due to lay-offs. The international media covered the tragedies extensively, giving the outside world the impression that the entire country was amidst a bloody battle, when truly, parts of Kenya were untouched by violence. The loss Kenya suffered from the lack of visitation equals approximately $47.6 million.[63] The fragile state of the economy affected surrounding countries as well.
After being sworn in as president, Kibaki named a partial cabinet on 8 January 2008, composed of 17 MPs from his party PNU and ODM–Kenya which entered into a coalition agreement, along with KANU. A number of further cabinet slots were left temporarily open, presumably to give space for negotiations with the opposition ODM, which immediately challenged the constitutionality of the new government.
By April 2008, Kenya was stable, though the conflict left “1,500 dead, 3,000 innocent women raped, and 300,000 people internally displaced.”[64] Kibaki remained President and Odinga was named Prime Minister. The National Assembly results were cancelled in three of the 210 constituencies. Prior to 2007, hostility surrounding politics in Kenya existed on a much smaller scale. In 1991, when multi-party politics was introduced, violence became known as an election-time tradition. However, the fighting and aggression demonstrated in December 2007 and January and February 2008 was and has been unmatched by any election-related uprising. In August 2012, the Nakuru County Peace Accord was signed, a treaty designed to address sources of ethnic conflict and violence in the Rift Valley region of Kenya.
Both Kibaki and Odinga largely ignored United Nations efforts to set up independent tribunals to bring the leaders of the post 2007-election violence to justice.[64]
On 10 December 2020, a high court orders the government to compensate four victims of sexual attacks by security agents during post-election violence during violence following the 2007 Kenyan general election.[65]
| Position | Minister |
|---|---|
| Vice-President | Stephen Kalonzo Musyoka |
| Minister for Home Affairs | |
| Minister of State for Defence | Mohamed Yusuf Haji |
| Minister of State for Provincial Administration and Internal Security | |
| Minister for Education | Sam Ongeri |
| Minister for Energy | Kiraitu Murungi |
| Minister for Finance | Amos Kimunya |
| Minister for Foreign Affairs | Moses Wetangula |
| Minister for Information and Communications | Samuel Poghisio |
| Minister for Justice and Constitutional Affairs | Martha Karua |
| Minister for Local Government | Uhuru Kenyatta |
| Minister for Public Service | Asman Kamama |
| Minister for Roads and Public Works | John Michuki |
| Minister for Science and Technology | Noah Wekesa |
| Minister of State for Special Programmes | Naomi Shaban |
| Minister for the East African Community | Wilfred Machage |
| Minister for Transport | Chirau Ali Mwakwere |
| Minister for Water and Irrigation | John Munyes |
The 2007 Kenyan general election was a pivotal moment in the country’s history. While the election results were contentious, the ensuing violence highlighted the deep ethnic and political divisions within the nation. The establishment of the coalition government brought an end to the bloodshed, but the scars of the post-election violence remain. The reforms that followed were critical in shaping Kenya’s future political landscape, aiming to create a more stable, inclusive, and transparent system. The 2007 election continues to be a reminder of the fragility of peace and the importance of unity in Kenya’s democracy.
